In last week’s article, I discussed the concept of mythology and how various mythologies came into being. I aimed to provide a broad overview of myth formation across different cultures. Initially, I considered using the term “creation mythology” as the title for this article. However, creation mythology specifically relates to the origin of the world and how it was created. Creation stories are myths that explain the origin of the universe or cosmos.
“The origin of the cosmos forms one of the principal themes of mythology throughout the world. Most mythologies view the process of creation as belonging to the distant past. Some mythological traditions, however, present creation as a continuing cycle of birth and destruction, as seen in Hindu tradition or in the beliefs of the native peoples of Central America regarding the so-called Five Suns that governed successive worlds.”
As we can see from the above quotation, there is no consensus regarding creation or origin mythology. Myths and folklore are the collective and diverse products of people’s imaginations across cultures, crystallized over long periods. I could not discuss Ethiopian mythologies due to a lack of space and research materials. This article will focus on Ethiopian mythology, which is manifested in a limited number of cultures and traditions.
A limited perspective on Ethiopian mythology reveals that Ethiopia is a land rich in myths that are not systematically compiled, studied, or preserved. This lack of preservation hinders future generations from utilizing these materials for the study of cultures and traditions, as well as understanding the richness of Ethiopian literature.
Ethiopian mythology is described as “rich with stories of deities, mythical creatures, and historical figures,” reflecting the diverse cultures and beliefs of the region. Key figures include deities like Buk, the crone goddess, often depicted with symbols like a small snake. Atete is a goddess of creation, protector of families and children, revered by women in some regions. In some cultures, Atete is depicted solely as a goddess of creation, while in others, she is seen as a woman spirit—a benevolent entity that cares for children.
Atete is celebrated in many traditional families as a symbol of kindness, motherhood, and fertility. Specific rituals, such as coffee ceremonies and the preparation of crushed and boiled wheat with butter, are performed to honor this spirit. Women often apply raw butter to their hair and heads during celebrations. These rituals demonstrate reverence for Atete, who is believed to protect families and bless them with children viewed as gifts.
Spirit worship is widespread in Ethiopia, although the distinction between malevolent and benevolent spirits is often blurred. In Ethiopia, as well as in many societies worldwide, benevolent and malevolent spirits are differentiated by their roles in the lives of communities. Malevolent spirits are considered evil, often described as demons or supernatural beings capable of influencing human lives negatively. Demons play significant roles in the traditions of most religions and appear in mythology and literature.
Conversely, benevolent spirits are viewed as helpful entities that address problems such as childbirth, community health, and the provision of rain through rituals and prayers. Many believe these spirits reside within communities, though they remain invisible, appearing during rituals through possessed individuals who convey instructions and blessings.
The distinction between benevolent and malevolent spirits in Ethiopian folklore is not determined by consensus but through long-standing traditional practices. What one community considers malevolent might be viewed as benevolent by another, making classifications arbitrary and sometimes controversial.
People in various Ethiopian traditional communities celebrate both malevolent and benevolent spirits based on their ancestral traditions or personal beliefs. These spiritual entities are often passed down through family bloodlines, and their acceptance relies on inherited beliefs and practices rather than the opinions of later generations. Non-compliance with these spirits can have severe consequences, as rituals are often enforced through threats of punishment. Thus, the system of spirit worship in Ethiopian societies can be maintained through coercion, especially regarding malevolent spirits.
For instance, comparing Buk, the crone goddess, with Atete, the goddess of creation, reveals that Buk may be seen as malevolent due to her association with a small snake, while Atete, associated with multicolored beads and traditional fabrics, appears benevolent due to her maternal role.
Other gods, goddesses, and spirits in Ethiopian folklore also play various roles. Beher is “a god of the sea and war,” possibly connected to maritime regions. The name Beher can also be pronounced as Baher, meaning “the sea” in Amharic. This may be comparable to ‘maritime spirits’ in other cultures, often viewed as dangerous due to their negative impact on individuals and communities.
Ayana is a concept in Oromo mythology. According to one writer, “Pretty much all religions in Ethiopia have a god, either a monotheistic god or multiple deities—sometimes these gods communicate directly with people, while others send messages through angels and spirits.” Ayana function as personal guardian spirits, sitting on the right shoulder of an individual and influencing their personality.
“When a child is born, their Ayana determines what traits and interests they will have. These guardians protect families or clans and are regarded as minor deities. Ayana can be male or female and possess humans. Nabi, the primary male Ayana, predates humanity and is said to be the ancestor of the first humans. In one myth, during a severe drought, a man sacrifices his son, but as the dagger touches the boy’s throat, a lamb descends from heaven…”
Several books have been published on Ethiopian mythology. One is titled When the World Began: Stories Collected in Ethiopia, published by Elizabeth Laird in 2000. The author notes, “The classic stories of our childhood—’Cinderella’, ‘The Sleeping Beauty’, ‘Little Red Riding Hood’—exist only in books today, but they started their lives as oral tales told from one generation to the next. In Ethiopia, however, great treasuries of fairy tales still live in people’s heads and have never been written down. Old people sit together in the evening and tell stories that were already old a hundred years ago.”
Elizabeth Laird spent two years traveling around Ethiopia, collecting tales from Muslims in the hot, dry desert in the east, Christians from the cool central highlands, and people from older religions in the warm, humid south.
Another notable book is Andromeda, Princess of Ethiopia. According to a brief review, it provides an accurate version of the Greek myth about Andromeda’s rescue from her perspective, omitting any mention of Perseus. The author, Ellenore Angelidis, writes, “Her beauty was so renowned that it ignited the jealousy of Poseidon, who sent a great sea monster to devour her.”
Ethiopian folklore is rich, diverse, and full of imagination. Unfortunately, many stories have vanished or survive only in oral form. The lack of involvement from Ethiopian researchers in rediscovering these oral myths is puzzling, especially since most published works have been by foreigners. The reasons Ethiopian mythology has not yet captured the imagination of writers and researchers merit further exploration.
BY MULUGETA GUDETA
THE ETHIOPIAN HERALD SATURDAY 10 MAY 2025
